With the NFL draft taking place in Pittsburgh and an estimated 500,000 to 700,000 people expected to attend the events downtown and on the North Shore, conversations about sex trafficking have resurfaced – as they often do when major events draw large crowds to a city.

But how much of what people believe about trafficking and big events is actually supported by evidence? Mary Burke, a psychology professor at Carlow University who studies this intersection, breaks down what the data shows.

Burke partners with local nonprofit groups that fight human trafficking, such as Eden’s Farm. The organization offered three community training sessions ahead of the NFL draft that focused on recognizing the signs of exploitation, understanding grooming tactics and strengthening prevention strategies.

With Pittsburgh hosting the NFL draft, what does research show about how large events can influence sex trafficking activity?

Researchers have not found conclusive evidence that large events such as the NFL draft, the World Cup or other similarly sized, temporary events cause an increase in sex trafficking. However, experts do believe the crime of sex trafficking is underestimated in general due to a number of factors. Because so much effort goes into concealing trafficking, the crime goes unreported and undetected more often than it’s discovered. The true scale of the problem is likely much larger than the data reflects.

Large events that draw crowds even on a smaller scale than the draft, such as motorcycle rallies and large business conferences, often create opportunities traffickers may try to exploit, according to a 2016 study by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University.

Also, we do see an increased demand for commercial sex with events that draw a large male audience. Some of this demand is met through consensual means and some through force, fraud and coercion, which is the definition of sex trafficking.

How are organizations like Eden’s Farm working on the ground to prevent trafficking during the draft?

Eden’s Farm as well as the Social Impact Institute and Carlow University have led training. The hope is that this will equip citizens and those on the ground – law enforcement, ride share drivers and hotel and restaurant employees, for example – to know how to identify and respond to potential trafficking situations.

Additionally, these groups teach the public how to recognize signs of exploitation, how grooming works and how to strengthen online safety. The training also help families, educators, service providers and community members prevent people they know from being trafficked.

What are common misconceptions people have about sex trafficking during events like this?

One of the most common misconceptions about sex trafficking is the idea that trafficking includes abduction or physical captivity. While kidnapping can occur, many trafficking situations are carried out through psychological coercion rather than physical force. Victims may be controlled through grooming, fraud, intimidation, fear of retaliation against loved ones, or deep emotional dependency on the trafficker.

This translates into a victim not appearing to be restrained physically, which can make identification of a person in distress more difficult.

What signs should the general public look for that might indicate trafficking is happening?

This is tricky, as some of the indicators would be revealed through conversation, rather than observation at a distance. With that said, people should be on the lookout for patterns of control – for example, someone who does not seem to be able to speak freely or move about freely, has money or identification that is controlled by another person, or appears fearful.

In our training, we explain how to become aware of signs that someone is being pressured into commercial sex through manipulation rather than overt violence or consent. No single sign is definitive on its own, but there are some common situational red flags the public can take notice of regarding potential victims: They are coming and going from a hotel room at unusual hours with multiple different people, they are dressed in a way that seems inconsistent with the weather or setting, or they don’t seem to know basic details about where they are or where they’re going.

What are some prevention strategies Pittsburgh could adopt?

For this event and going forward, trafficking prevention should include a city- and county-level plan that can be implemented in relevant agencies. Pennsylvania’s plan focuses on prevention through public awareness and training, especially by equipping transportation workers and the public to recognize and report trafficking.

Prevention plans could include recommendations for the service and hospitality industries that require staff training on recognizing trafficking indicators, such as signs of coercion or restricted movement, and how to report to law enforcement or 911 for a rapid response. There are also a variety of ways to report suspected sex trafficking activity through the National Human Trafficking Hotline. When businesses and service workers interact with people who may be trafficking victims, they should do so in a way that is sensitive, nonjudgmental and doesn’t put the person in danger.

For example, a hotel employee who suspects a guest may be a trafficking victim shouldn’t confront the trafficker directly or make a scene – instead, they should know how to quietly offer help or alert the right people without escalating the situation or making the victim feel ashamed or accused.

Mary Burke is also the Director of the Social Impact Institute.

Rachel Seamans volunteers with the Social Impact Institute and Eden’s Farm.

You may have seen black garlic appear more frequently in grocery stores, restaurants and online recipes over the past few years. Many chefs and food writers describe it as a unique and deeply flavored ingredient. So what is black garlic, and how is it made?

I noticed a growing curiosity about black garlic firsthand while presenting my food science research at a showcase at Michigan State University. Several people asked me basic questions about black garlic, like how it is made and what sets it apart from regular garlic. The ingredient’s growing popularity reflects a broader interest in foods that offer both distinctive flavor and potential health benefits.

Black garlic is not an ancient traditional food, but a recent innovation developed in Japan in the late 20th century. The process of making black garlic is often attributed to Japanese scientist Hamasuke Hamano, who spent a decade refining a method to make garlic more palatable before securing a patent in 2004.

How is black garlic made?

Black garlic is not a different type of garlic. It is made from regular garlic bulbs that have been kept under warm, humid conditions typically in specialized chambers that maintain exact heat and humidity levels for several weeks to months.

Unlike traditional fermentation, this process does not use added microorganisms. Instead, the transformation happens through a combination of heat and moisture. As the garlic is slowly heated under controlled conditions, natural chemical reactions known as Maillard reactions take place within the cloves. These reactions give black garlic its dark color and its slightly sweet, rich flavor.

Producers may use different processing times, storage temperatures and packaging materials, all of which can make the final product vary in taste and quality. Because of this variation, black garlic often doesn’t taste the same across products.

Texture and taste of black garlic

While raw garlic has a sharp, pungent taste, black garlic typically has a milder, slightly sweet taste. The underlying chemistry is complex, but the basic idea is straightforward: Heat and humidity transform both the taste and structure of garlic. These shifts in flavor happen because the compound responsible for garlic’s strong taste breaks down during the heating process. At the same time, heat-driven reactions form new compounds that contribute to a smoother and more complex flavor.

The texture also changes significantly. Instead of being firm and crisp, black garlic becomes soft and almost spreadable.

The heat and humidity break down the structure of garlic by softening its cell walls and altering its sugars and proteins. The reactions also reduce allicin: the compound responsible for garlic’s sharp and pungent flavor. At the same time, Maillard reactions between sugars and amino acids – which make up proteins – create new compounds, including brown pigments called melanoidins and a range of flavor compounds.

What is known about black garlic’s health effects?

Some studies suggest that black garlic may have higher antioxidant activity than raw garlic. Antioxidants are compounds that help neutralize unstable molecules in the body, which can damage cells over time.

Researchers have explored the effects of black garlic on metabolic and cardiovascular health, including blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Some studies report modest improvements in these markers, although the results are not always consistent.

Previous studies have suggested that compounds in black garlic may help reduce inflammation, fight harmful bacteria and even show some potential in slowing the growth of cancer cells.

These findings are promising, but they should be interpreted carefully, especially because most studies have been conducted in laboratory settings or animal models, rather than on people.

What are scientists still figuring out?

Despite growing interest, researchers still have important gaps in their understanding of black garlic. Without well-designed human trials, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about its health effects.

Another challenge lies in the lack of standardized production methods. Because black garlic production methods vary, its composition can vary. It’s much harder for researchers to compare results across studies and identify consistent benefits. Scientists will need to conduct more research before they can make any promises about black garlic’s benefits – or lack thereof.

Black garlic is proof that a few simple tweaks in how you prepare a food can rewrite its story entirely. For now, you can appreciate black garlic as an interesting addition to your kitchen, while researchers continue to explore what it can and cannot do for your health.

Mavra Javed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.